EJEEE

https://doi.org/10.62909/ejeee.2023.001 Edison Journal for Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Article

Improved Command and Control (C2) capabilities in urban and

challenging terrains

Qutaiba Kadhim Abed 1, * , Laith Hikmet Mahdi 2 and Ali Qays Abdullah 3

1 Informatics Institute for Postgraduate Studies, Iraqi Commission for Computers and Informatics, Baghdad,

Iraq; phd202130682@iips.edu.iq

2 Electronics and nanoelectronics, National Research Mordovia State University, United Russia;

laith.hm@gmail.com ; Tel.: +7-98985585

3 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Craiova, Romania; ali.qays90@elth.ucv.ro

* Correspondence: Tel.: +964-7714870760

Abstract: Army's Network Centric Warfare strategy aims to bolster Information Dominance capa-

bilities, utilizing Command and Control (C2) systems like the Army Battle Command Systems

(ABCS), stayed on advancing knowledges for example networking, communications, and position-

ing. Maintaining current Situation Awareness (SA) information is vital for successful C2 systems,

requiring incessant and opportune location data from pertinent stages in the battlefield. The accu-

racy and obtainability of this location evidence straight impact active efficiency. Traditionally, po-

sitioning served the purpose of "own ship" pilotage, answering the question of navigating from

Point A to Point B. However, the part of placement as a communal reserve is evolving, increasing

the status of location evidence quality and availability. The primary source of this position data is

the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS), offering a consistent coordinate reference with ac-

curacy unaffected by time or distance traveled, and with lower integration costs compared to alter-

natives like Inertial Navigation Units (INU) or Doppler Radar Navigation Sets. It's crucial to note

that GPS is susceptible to Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI) and signal blockage in Urban and

Compound Terrain. Technological initiatives are focused on exploring advanced integration tech-

niques that combine externally aided and self-contained navigation systems.

Keywords: communication; GPS; Digitized Army; Inertial Navigation Units

1. Introduction

A fundamental principle of the "Digitized Army" is "Information Dominance," where

the precision and accessibility of individual power location data straight impact the active

efficiency of the future Army. Traditionally, location evidence served the purpose of guid-

ing one's own ship from Point A to Point B. However, the evolving role of location evi-

dence is now viewed as a common reserve, contributing to nearly flawless State Aware-

ness (SA) for the purpose of enhancing Command and Control (C2) efficiency and achiev-

ing power increase [1].

The Army Battle Command Systems (ABCS) and other C2 systems rely significantly

on precise digital position reports from all battlefield platforms. Since it provides a uni-

form and global coordinate reference, the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is

the main source of this location data. GPS accuracy is independent of journey time and

distance, in contrast to self-contained navigation devices like Doppler Radar Navigation

Sets and Inertial Navigation Units (INU). Moreover, compared to INUs or Doppler sys-

tems, GPS receivers are noticeably less expensive to integrate, run, and maintain.

Citation: Abed, Q.K., L.H. Mahdi,

and A.Q. Abdullah, Improved Com-

mand and Control (C2) capabilities in

urban and challenging terrains. Edi-

son Journal for electrical and elec-

tronics engineering, 2023. 1: p. 1-5.

Academic Editor: Ali T. Hammid

Received: 2/12/2022

Revised: 3/1/2023

Accepted: 15/1/2023

Published: 15/1/2023

Submitted for possible open access

publication under the terms and

conditions of the Creative Commons

Attribution (CC BY) license

(https://creativecommons.org/license

s/by/4.0/).

EJEEE 2023, Vol.1 2 of 5

2. ALIGNING, NAVIGATION AND TIMING: IN THE SETTING OF ACTIVE

KNOWLEDGE AND REGULATOR

It is impossible to overestimate the importance of precise and often updated digital

position updates in the context of operational Command and Control (C2). The incident

during Operation Enduring Freedom where a forward air controller mistakenly called for

a Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) on what they believed to be a target but was actu-

ally their own location serves as an example of how reports based on incomplete or inac-

curate information can have serious repercussions. A dead battery and inadequate train-

ing were mentioned as the causes of this unfortunate incident.

The US Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) emphasizes the need of

having high-quality positioning and navigation data, as shown in TRADOC Pamphlet

525-66 on Force Operating Capabilities and operational requirement documents (ORD)

for the Future Combat System and the Land Warrior (FOC). These specifications spell out

the necessity for a very accurate positioning system that can function in a variety of set-

tings and weather circumstances. They also stress the significance of complete compati-

bility with all Army Battle Command Systems (ABCS), which include Maneuver, Air De-

fense, Combat Service Support, Fire Support, and Intelligence and Electronic Warfare.

These agreements acknowledge that electronic threats to positioning systems exist, and

they also stress the need to create defenses against those threats.[2].

New information from operations Enduring Freedom (OEF) and Iraqi Freedom (OIF)

emphasizes the need for affordable positioning devices, even advocating for supplying

them to all soldiers. According to an Inside the Army article, many soldiers carried their

own commercial GPS receivers, which raised questions within the Department of Defense

(DOD) regarding the devices' vulnerability.

Though they aren't made explicit in requirements documents, the availability and

precision of synchronized time on the battlefield are much more important. Time is a crit-

ical component of intelligence, communications, and sensor operations; nearly every com-

bat unit employs it for cryptology and frequency hopping.

"The ability to have accurate and real-time information about friendly, hostile, neu-

tral, and noncombatant places; a common, relevant image of the battlefield scaled to a

specific level of interest and unique necessity" is the definition of situational awareness

given by FM 100-14.[3]."

The Common Operational Picture (COP), which is a collective depiction, is produced

when individuals report their situations. Additional intelligence is provided by friendly

troops and sensors, which report hostile, neutral, and noncombatant locations. These lo-

cations are either estimated using known friendly positions or are "lasered" using laser-

ranging technology. After that, this data is transformed into digital coordinates and added

to the COP. The provision of precise and timely position information for these units is the

critical component that makes these capabilities possible.[4].

As per the definition provided by Joint Pub 1-02, command and control is "the use of

power and direction over assigned and attached forces by a duly appointed commander

in order to complete the mission. A commander plans, directs, coordinates, and controls

forces and operations in order to complete a task. These functions are carried out through

the organization of people, equipment, communications, facilities, and procedures. Like-

wise known as C2." Superior situational awareness increases the likelihood that com-

manders will make wise choices. A large portion of the "fog of war" is removed by accu-

rate position information on friendly forces, which is acquired through frequently up-

dated reports. This makes it possible for commanders to give their men more precise or-

ders.[5].

In summary, Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (PNT) data unquestionably serve

as a force multiplier and constitute the cornerstone of Command and Control (C2). The

crucial role that GPS plays in the country's transportation network is acknowledged by

the US. Similarly, for dismounted soldiers who need a high degree of protection, GPS and

EJEEE 2023, Vol.1 3 of 5

other locating devices described in this study should be considered an essential part of

the battlefield infrastructure.[6].

2.1 BATTLESPACE TACTICAL NAVIGATION

The goal of the Battlespace Tactical Navigation (BTN) Science and Technology Ob-

jective (STO) program is to solve a number of technical issues pertaining to GPS and nav-

igation. The Army is particularly concerned about GPS's susceptibility to jamming and

electro-magnetic interference (EMI).

Unlike other services, the Army possesses a greater number and variety of platforms

equipped with GPS receivers, accounting for 86% of the Department of Defense's (DoD)

GPS receivers. Upgrading individual user equipment suites for these platforms entails a

substantial expense. Furthermore, the Army engages in diverse missions that may require

different interference mitigation approaches. Additionally, it operates in a higher EMI en-

vironment, particularly during signal acquisition, due to its proximity to jammers and

longer mission durations.

BTN has developed technologies aimed at enhancing the robustness of GPS reception

in challenging electronic countermeasure (ECM) environments. One category of these

technologies includes anti-jam (A/J) antennas, which will be further detailed below [7].

2.2 ANTI-JAM FEELER RETROFIT FOR THE AN/PSN-11 EXACT FRIVOLOUS

GPS HEADSET

BTN has effectively created a number of innovations, such as many iterations of an

anti-jam (A/J) antenna made to work with the portable Precise Lightweight GPS receiver

(PLGR). Toyon Research, Inc. and Electro-Radiation, Inc. (ERI) collaborated on the crea-

tion of retrofit null forming antennas made especially for the PLGR.

Electro-Radiation Inc. (ERI) played a role in the development of the A/J antenna. The

ERI antenna was created as part of an ACT II project carried out by CECOM and spon-

sored by the Space and Missile Defense Battlelab. This initiative utilized a topic authored

by CECOM.

Network Assisted Navigation builds upon initiatives started in the commercial sec-

tor, particularly in the context of E-911 service for cell phones. This technology leverages

information accessible through radio/network links to support GPS or other navigation

sensors in low or degraded signal environments where obtaining a navigation solution

would be challenging.

RF ranging employs time of flight information, similar to GPS ranging, with the user

ensemble forming the "constellation." Advanced algorithms can determine the relative lo-

cation of a group, such as a squad of soldiers within a building. When some group mem-

bers have absolute positions, like accurate GPS data, absolute position solutions can be

derived. Overcoming issues like wall penetration attenuation and mitigating multipath

and reflections presents technical challenges.

Advanced Pedometric improves the Point Research, Inc. Dead Reckoning module by

incorporating enhanced motion classification algorithms to detect backward or sideways

walking and running [8].

The goal of the integration effort for Micro-Machined Electromechanical Systems

(MEMS) Inertial Measurement Units (IMU) is to build compact, reliable, and accurate ac-

celerometers and gyroscopes by leveraging military and commercial breakthroughs in

MEMS. These sensors work in concert with other ATO-developed technology to improve

overall navigation performance.

We are in the third year of a four-year program that is the APNTFF ATO. At first, it

concentrated on investigating potential solutions to enhance GPS-only position location

capabilities in difficult GPS settings. Right now, the main goals are to improve, integrate,

and show off an integrated breadboard navigation system's capabilities in a meaningful

setting.

Network Assisted GPS, RF Ranging, and Enhanced Pedometry were the three main

technologies that the APNTFF program investigated while supporting the creation of

"wearable" breadboard or prototype experimental dismounted positioning systems

EJEEE 2023, Vol.1 4 of 5

during the first two years of the program. NAVSYS received special funding to create and

supply six breadboards that utilize network-assisted GPS technology.[9].

3. Results

Spot Exploration Business and Vectronix gotten supporting to creäte and supply Bet-

ter Pedometry approaches. These improvements trained dual essential sections that per-

mitted restricted the functionality of this equipment for descended warriors through the

Ground Soldier steering subsystem advance. The first improvement was to allow step

characterizations other than the forward walking step characterization that was previ-

ously in place. The second improvement addressed the mitigation of magnetic anomaly

conditions that are frequently encountered in building and urban operations.

Point Research and Vectronix have both effectively produced devices that improve

GPS performance by using MEMS inertial sensors and human motion modeling or meas-

urement. These systems were designed to provide a self-contained indoor positioning ca-

pability that took into account realistic soldier maneuvers like crouching, crawling, run-

ning, jumping, crab walking, backward walking, and side-to-side walking, with a target

accuracy of 2 to 3 percent of the distance traveled. Since the demonstration systems were

intended to be self-sufficient, no auxiliary infrastructure was needed.

These devices were designed to investigate technologies that showed promise for en-

hancing dismounted soldiers' tactical operations and situational awareness. All of the sys-

tems could function both indoors and in difficult urban positioning situations. The Octo-

ber/November 2004 experiments comprised both Outside Scenarios (with surveyed way-

points) and Mixed Environment Scenarios (with both indoor and outdoor segments com-

bined). These scenarios made it possible to test the relevant systems in one or more modes

of operation, which made it easier to compare the performance of different systems and

modes.

While specifics are still unavailable, the analysis of the technology demonstration

systems' trials is underway. In general, all of the technology breadboard systems showed

varied degrees of success in achieving their design goals. The three main technologies

under investigation—Enhanced Pedometry, RF Ranging, and Networked Assisted GPS—

showed varying degrees of position performance. When taken into consideration sepa-

rately, none of the technologies examined demonstrated any promise in achieving the po-

sitional objectives for dismounted infantry.

Working together with Northrop Grumman, the APNTFF program is continuously

evolving. According to Northrop Grumman's concept, a prototype dismounted soldier

"wearable" navigation system would incorporate technologies such as RF Ranging, MEMS

IMU, Network Assisted GPS, and Enhanced Pedometry. The goal of this integration is to

make it easier to do additional research on integrated positioning performance. This ef-

fort's main goal is to solve the locating issues dismounted soldiers have in areas with poor

GPS reception.

Characterizing system faults and creating integration methods to combine data from

the selected technologies will be the main focus of the work. It is anticipated that the inte-

grated breadboard system under development will surpass the ideal bounds in terms of

dimensions, mass, energy output, and expense for the dismounted soldier. Consequently,

significant system development would be needed to create fieldable prototypes or imple-

ment them operationally when the integrated development and demonstration phase of

the APNTFF program is over.

Future development requirements can take into account integration with other sys-

tems or equipment, repackaging, shrinking, or improved capabilities.

4. Conclusions

This paper has explored the transformation of systems providing position and time

information, moving beyond their traditional role as navigation aids for individual users.

EJEEE 2023, Vol.1 5 of 5

These systems now play a more significant role in enhancing Situation Awareness for

larger units by reporting the positions of individual platforms. The demonstrated im-

provement in Situational Awareness has directly elevated Command and Control capa-

bilities, establishing it as a force multiplier. The success of this evolution has given rise to

numerous new concepts for the utilization of position and time information. These emerg-

ing concepts generally impose greater demands on the reliability, accuracy, and timeliness

of the position location and time information than current systems can practically and

cost-effectively deliver.

Currently, there isn't unique steering group of coordination that maybe regarded the

best suited for numerous army purposes. The skills picked for probe were deeply chose

to improve the army's steering expertise in complicated armed environments, while also

addressing considerations of Size, Weight, Power, and cost (SWAP) associated with the

technology. Solutions designed for these challenging military environments also have the

potential to enhance overall navigation systems when deployed in less demanding envi-

ronments. It is caustic that the earlier our group originate to meeting the current army

supplies for location and judgement, the incessant development of novel ideas for upcom-

ing working abilities reliably drives the essential for improved abilities from the army's

steering schemes, thereby cumulative SWAP and charge restraints.

Conflicts of Interest: Declare conflicts of interest or state “The authors declare no conflict of inter-

est.”

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